This is the hardest of all the categories to calculate or measure.

The only sensible way to do it really is to look at the other variables – compared with other athletes. It isn’t a very satisfactory from a scientific point of view, but is a useful exercise.

Video analysis of athletes performing specific tasks for comparison will often show where an athlete is losing out, and will produce elements of training that can be worked on.

Some aspects can be isolated, testing to see if more work is needed on them. An obvious example is hurdle technique, whereby you can compare your time for a flat run with that over hurdles. For example, a 400m hurdler whose flat 400m time was more than 4 seconds quicker than their hurdle time should be able to reduce their PB by improving their efficiency over the barriers - a sign that more hurdle drill technique work is needed.